The British, the French, and the Ottomans had varying degrees of control in different parts of the region; throughout the region, a strong nationalist sentiment opposed this foreign control. In the last years of the twentieth century there were several difficulties confronting Egypt, particularly economic ones. Another highly significant post-World War I settlement was the Treaty of Svres, signed by the Ottoman government in August 1920. window.__mirage2 = {petok:"rPHzTL1B1PHRgpIeMvMPKxwSazXkRMOZtdmbHq0iXvY-86400-0"}; Located on the campus of Stanford University and in Washington, DC, the Hoover Institution is the nations preeminent research center dedicated to generating policy ideas that promote economic prosperity, national security, and democratic governance. As mentioned above, British strategists worried about maintaining Ottoman territorial integrity in order to avert wars and contests for influence among the Great Powers themselves. In 1820 the emirates Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras al-Khaimah, Umm al-Quwain, and Fujairah were forced to sign agreements with Britain, which sought to protect its naval and merchant carriers in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. In the 1870s Ottoman policymakers in Istanbul, and their counterparts under the leadership of Khedive Ismail (the grandson of Muhammad Ali) in Egypt, began to take out loans from French and British businesses for the sake of pursuing westernizing, modernizing reforms. British presence in the region predated the formal assignation of mandate status, however, and was already a source of resentment; the mandate system only made matters worse. As mentioned above, Syria was originally a part of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, with Russia internally distracted after its 1917 communist revolution, Britain moved to confirm its postwar position in Iran, which remained subject to quasi-colonial control. By the 1830s British transport from the eastern Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean occurred along two main routes: the first stretched from the Syrian Desert, down the Euphrates River, and into the Persian Gulf; the second, which became increasingly important as the nineteenth century progressed, crossed the isthmus of Suez into the Red Sea. During World War I, British authorities engaged in a series of behind-the-scenes negotiations that ultimately transformed the political destinies of Middle Eastern people. Military leader Gamal Abd, Faisal I (1883-1933) was an Arab nationalist and political leader during and following World War I. It helped in the long run that Lord Cromer, architect of British policy in the 1883 to 1907 period, had believed in the value of the press as a safety valve for local grievances, because under British colonialism, Egypt's Arabic periodical press flourished and brought Egyptian nationalism into greater focus. The Middle East actually gave Europe religion four times, including . However, Islamist resistance at home and questions about Turkey's human rights record from abroad have stalled all EU membership discussions. Britain's withdrawal of troops from the Gulf region in 1968 led to Emir al Khalifa declaring independent in 1971. Near East applied to the region nearest Europe, extending from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf; Middle East, from the Persian Gulf to Southeast Asia; and Far East, those regions facing the Pacific Ocean. 750 to ca. Keddie, Nikki R. Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution. European colonization of North America expanded through Spanish colonists establishing themselves in present-day Florida in the 1500s and English colonists doing so farther up the East Coast in the 1600s. Kolinsky, Martin. However, the United States and the Soviet Union interceded to call off the Anglo-French-Israeli invasion out of a concern that the conflict could escalate in the Cold War milieu. Furthermore, as historians increasingly acknowledge, cultural and social influence was reciprocal. The New England and Middle colonies (article) | Khan Academy The colonial state in the Middle East presented yet another specific configuration of authority, territorial control and rights. "Independence and Decolonization, Middle East But the tide had already turned. In a few easy steps, create an account and receive the most recent analysis from Hoover fellows tailored to your specific policy interests. Lebanon is perhaps the most cosmopolitan of Middle Eastern states. In these letters, Sharif Husayn promised to stage an anti-Ottoman revolt if Britain promised, in return, to recognize an Arab state that would be led by Sharif Husayn and his family after the war. The Wafd almost disappeared from the scene; the torch of nationalism passed to the Muslim brotherhood, a militant organization that had mass appeal. BBC - History - World Wars: The Middle East during World War One Learn more about joining the community of supporters and scholars working together to advance Hoovers mission and values. According to the agreement, postwar Middle East was to be divided among the allies, with France and Britain "prepared to recognize and protect an independent Arab state or a conferedation of states under the suzerainty of an Arab chief." The UAE is a progressive and modern Islamic nation. In Egypt, British colonialism after 1882 had not only provoked but had indirectly aided the development of local nationalism. Tunisia was occupied in 1881, Egypt in 1882, the Sudan in 1889. ." Much to the dismay of France, which had only recently occupied Tunisia, Britain took action in 1882 by bombarding the coast of Alexandria and occupying Egypt. The vital importance of the Suez route was confirmed after 1869, when a French engineering firm cut a waterway through the 116-kilometer-wide (72-mile-wide) isthmus, creating the Suez Canal. Download Decolonisation of Middle-East PDF notes for free. In 1916 the British promised independence to Hussein ibn Ali, the emir of Mecca and sharif of the Hashemite family, if he would help them against the Ottomans. Feelings of political identity, economic identity, geographic identity, and religious identity coalesced into a powerful force. Over time, this resistance coalesced into a sense of nationalism that was completely at odds with the political reality of being colonized, that is, existing only for the betterment of the colonizer. The term "the Middle East" is itself a British colonial invention. British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, Part I: From the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the First World War, Series B: The Near and Middle East, 18561914. Paris, Timothy J. Britain, the Hashemites, and Arab Rule, 19201925. //]]>. ." The 1850s and 1860s witnessed a growing sense of Arab identity. Egypt, which was acquired by Britain as a protectorate in 1914, formally became an independent state in 1936, though it remained a monarchy until 1953. Mouchy, Nadine, and Peter Sluglett, eds. Kennedy, Dane. World War I transformed the Middle East in ways it had not seen for centuries. Africa and the Victorians: The Climax of Imperialism in the Dark Continent. 3rd ed. In 1856, for example, Britain helped to persuade the Ottoman sultan to issue the famous Humayun decree (one of the landmark measures of the mid-nineteenth-century Ottoman Tanzimat, or reformist, period), which proclaimed religious equality among Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Reza Shah's central government began to assert its authority in every aspect of the people's lives. Kuwait is an oil-rich nation nominally governed by a constitutional monarchy; in reality, the parliament is essentially an advisory body and the emirs, who come from the Al-Sabh family, exercise exclusive authority. Another small country on the Persian Gulf, Kuwait derives its wealth from oil production; like Jordan, it has to carefully balance its relations with neighboring states. Kuwait's allies include Western nations as well as its Arab neighbors. France retreated from Syria and Lebanon in 1946 after numerous catastrophic engagements with local peoples. Died on September 28, 1970 (Cairo, Egypt) Middle East, the lands around the southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, encompassing at least the Arabian Peninsula and, by some definitions, Iran, North Africa, and sometimes beyond. In this manner, Britain retained control over Iraq's future relations with its neighbors (of which the most important for Britain was Iran). The Trucial States were essentially sheikhdoms, that is, they each were ruled by a family whose leader was the emir (ruler). Known as the qUrabi Rebillionafter the military officer, Ahmed qUrabi, who emerged to lead itthis uprising prompted deep concern among Britons, who feared that instability in Egypt could threaten the Suez Canalthe British imperial life-line to Indiaas well as local British investments. Seventeen Britons were also killed in what has since been named the Black Saturday riots. Transjordan's independence was achieved in two stages. The trucial state system was itself an emendation of an earlier arrangement. Saudi Arabia is arguably the leading kingdom in the Middle East. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Oman has only recently decided to embark on a path of modernization. Following the Israeli occupation of the West Bank in 1967, Jordan lost almost half of its arable land, causing further economic hardship. 63,181,775), 94,226 sq mi (244,044, The first two wars took place in the context of the Great Game that pitted the empires of Britain and Russia against each other for the control of Ce, Great Britain, Relations with The outbreak of World War I in 1914 prompted Britain to reconfigure its Middle East presence. Arab nationalism continues to be a powerful force in today's world. In Iran in 1901, a British businessman named William Knox D'Arcy had secured a concession over local oil extraction; in 1909 D'Arcy founded the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). Hence the British government forged treaties with local Arab Gulf leaders in Bahrain (1880), Muscat (1891), and Kuwait (1899). This survey of British imperialism in the Middle East has emphasized political and diplomatic history and the decisions of government policymakers. Readings & Links - An Overview Of The European Invasion Of The - PBS The Balfour Declaration, made in November of that year, left a legacy that the Middle East and the rest of the world continue to confront into the twenty-first century. Only two years after the French occupied Algeria in 1830, a charismatic young warrior and Sufi scholar, Emir Abdelkader, led a 15-year revolt. Indeed, the independence process has been very complex in the Middle East. In 1961 the historians Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher famously argued that the British occupation of Egypt in 1882 was the trigger for the "Scramble for Africa." In 1925 he deposed the ruler, and with the approval of the lam he was crowned as the shah. The British became allies of the Omani rulers in disputes over land ownershipfor example, British forces assisted in reestablishing Oman's sovereignty over the Braim area, which Saudi Arabia also claimedand this led to a quid-pro-quo relationship between the two. Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. This was manifest in the renewed study of the 'Abbasd period (ca. That is, fears over a possible Ottoman collapse and over the Egyptian nationalist threat to the Suez Canal (as manifest in the 'Urabi Revolt) prompted the British occupation. This growing intelligentsia advocated not only a sense of national solidarity, but also a method of societal organization and plans for independent development. (dhimmis). Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 19141971. The president of the Free Officers' Executive Committee, Gamal Abdul Nasser, became Egypt's new leader. Accumulated literary and artistic representations of the exotic, despotic East, retrograde and debauched, also provided the foil against which late nineteenth-century British writers constructed an image of the British national and imperial character as rational, modern, moral, and strong. The Middle East in the Twentieth Century. The Arabs want to enforce Arab-Islamic colonialism onto the Jews, while at the same time the Arabs accuse the Jews of being colonists; this is a form of propaganda, which should be considered. Acting on this agreement, and bolstered by British funds, weapons, and military advising, Sharif Husayn built up an army to attack the Ottomans. It is worth noting that Britain's protection of Ottoman territorial integrity did not apply to Greece, where an anti-Ottoman nationalist revolt broke out in 1821. As mentioned earlier, Iraq became a formal mandate of Britain in 1919. David and Joan Traitel Building & Rental Information, National Security, Technology & Law Working Group, Middle East and the Islamic World Working Group, Military History/Contemporary Conflict Working Group, Technology, Economics, and Governance Working Group, Answering Challenges to Advanced Economies, Understanding the Effects of Technology on Economics and Governance, Support the Mission of the Hoover Institution. Yapp, Malcolm. Owen, Roger. In 1922 Syria became a French mandate. In addition, geographic factors often require statesmen and others to take account of Afghanistan and Pakistan in connection with the affairs of the Middle East. Sadat paid with his life in 1981 when he was assassinated by Islamist extremists. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. The country's infrastructure is seriously damaged, relationships between Christians and Muslims are tense, and there has been uncontrolled growth of debt. 2019Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. Leiden, Netherlands; Boston: Brill, 2004. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. From the late sixteenth century, commercial contacts with the Ottoman Empire provided not only economic, but also cultural foundations for Britain's imperialism in the region, insofar as they inspired a popular English literature about Turks and Muslims that flourished in the form of travel accounts, plays, and histories. Tignor, Robert L. Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, 18821914. London: Tauris, 2004. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450. . As noted above, in this phase rights were granted, for instance, to those segments of society that were involved in controlling parts of the territory, such as large landowners, tribal sheikhs and European settlers. New York: Grove Press, 2003. In order to rebuild its infrastructure after the war, Kuwait spent more than $160 billion. On the contrary, the mandate for Palestine laid out a framework for Zionist administration and settlement, according to which Britain would facilitate Jewish immigration. Greeks and Phoenicians also established colonies with the intent of regulating and expanding trade throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East. In short, the same forces in the global economy that had been working to Europe's advantage since the sixteenth century now began to work to the detriment of both the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran, which lacked the wherewithal and internal coherence to stave off military, territorial, and economic challenges to their sovereignty. Other Arab nations, particularly Egypt, objected to the idea of incorporating Palestine, and in 1951 Abdullah was assassinated in Jerusalem's al-Aqs Mosque by a Palestinian youth who opposed his expansionist ideas. London: Tauris, 2002. Western countries were not willing to offer loans without attaching unreasonable terms, leading Nasser to dub such loans "imperialism without soldiers." Second, and also in 1921, Britain invited Abdallah, another son of Sharif Husayn, to become emir of Transjordan, an arid and thinly populated region that Britain had gained with the Palestine mandatebut an area that was excluded from the sphere of Zionist settlement. In 1920 the independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established, under Feisal, the commander of the Arab forces and the third son of the Sherif of Mecca. This led to increasing disaffection among some segments of the population, which turned increasingly to fundamentalist Islamist groups. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. 29 Jun. Arabs expected the British to grant them independence at the end of World War I. 29 Jun. 10 vols. At the end of the eighteenth century, British trade in the eastern Mediterranean lands of the Ottoman Empire (the Levant region) accounted for a mere 1 percent of total British foreign trade. The last enclaves of British colonial influence in the Middle East were in the Gulf region. From 1980 to 1988 Iran and Iraq fought a bitter war after Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein sent his troops to invade Iran. At the end of World War II, Egyptian politics were in complete disarray. London: Routledge/Curzon, 2004. The country's leader, Hosni Mubarak, attempted to improve Egypt's image in the Arab worldin recent decades Egypt had been perceived by many Arabs as being too close to the United States and Israelwhile maintaining cordial relations with Western powers and Israel. In Iran, different currents of nationalism imagined different futures for the country. While Islam is a common factor that binds together these peoples and nations, there are many regional cultural differences as well. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such groups began to organize nationalist demonstrations; some directly challenged the imperial rule of the British, the French, and even the Ottoman Turks. Smith, Simon C. Britain's Revival and Fall in the Gulf: Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the Trucial States, 195071. This essay surveys the history of British imperialism in the Middle East by examining four major periods of interaction: (1) the period of political and economic consolidation that occurred in the decades after the Napoleonic conquest of Egypt; (2) the period of formal entrenchment that began in 1882 with the British Occupation of Egypt and that. Military leader 2023
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